India’s nuclear journey is closely tied to its geopolitical tensions—especially its wars with Pakistan. From the traumatic partition of 1947 to the major wars in 1948, 1965, 1971, and the Kargil conflict of 1999, India’s pursuit of nuclear weapons was shaped by a desire for security, deterrence, and regional dominance.
India conducted two major nuclear tests: Pokhran-I in 1974 and Pokhran-II in 1998. Each test followed a backdrop of war or military tension with Pakistan. This article explores the reasons, outcomes, and strategic impact of these tests on India-Pakistan relations and South Asian stability.
Background: The Indo-Pakistan Wars That Shaped India’s Nuclear Thinking
1. First Kashmir War (1947–48)
Just after independence, India and Pakistan clashed over Jammu and Kashmir. Though it ended in a UN-mandated ceasefire, the war exposed India’s vulnerability and the unresolved nature of the Kashmir dispute.
2. Second Indo-Pak War (1965)
This war, fought mainly in Punjab and Kashmir, was a major military engagement that ended in a stalemate. Pakistan used Operation Gibraltar to infiltrate forces into Kashmir, which escalated into full-blown war.
3. Third Indo-Pak War (1971)
The 1971 war was a decisive Indian military victory, resulting in the creation of Bangladesh and the surrender of over 90,000 Pakistani troops. It was a turning point in South Asian history.
4. Kargil Conflict (1999)
Just a year after India and Pakistan went nuclear, Pakistani intrusions in Kargil led to a limited but intense conflict. The war was fought under the shadow of nuclear deterrence.
These wars deeply influenced India’s defense and nuclear posture. Let’s now look at how that unfolded through its nuclear tests.
Pokhran-I: India’s First Nuclear Test (1974)
Code Name: Smiling Buddha
Date: May 18, 1974
Location: Pokhran Test Range, Rajasthan
“Smiling Buddha” was India’s first successful nuclear test, making it the sixth country in the world to join the nuclear club.
Motivations Behind the Test:
- Security Concerns:
- China had already tested its first nuclear weapon in 1964.
- Although India had defeated Pakistan in 1971, the possibility of future conflict remained.
- 1971 War Aftermath:
- Despite a dominant victory, India realized that conventional success may not always guarantee long-term deterrence.
- Nuclear capability was seen as essential to maintaining strategic superiority in South Asia.
- Global Prestige:
- The nuclear test elevated India’s status globally and reinforced its image as a rising power.
Impact on Pakistan:
- Shocked by India’s nuclear capability, Pakistan’s then Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto vowed to match India’s program “even if we have to eat grass.”
- This triggered Pakistan’s accelerated nuclear weapons development with support from China and North Korea.
Pokhran-II: India’s Full Nuclear Weaponization (1998)
Code Name: Operation Shakti
Date: May 11 and 13, 1998
Location: Pokhran Test Range
India conducted five underground nuclear tests in May 1998, declaring itself a nuclear weapons state.
Political Context:
- Post-Kargil Tensions:
- Though Kargil happened in 1999, tensions were already high due to border skirmishes and proxy warfare in Kashmir.
- India needed a credible deterrent against both Pakistan and China.
- BJP Government’s Agenda:
- The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), elected in 1998, had a clear manifesto to declare India a nuclear state.
- The decision was seen as both strategic and nationalistic.
- No-First-Use Doctrine:
- After the tests, India announced a “No-First-Use” (NFU) policy, asserting it would only use nuclear weapons in retaliation.
Strategic Gains:
- India became a de facto nuclear power.
- Sent a message of self-reliance and deterrence.
- Shifted the regional balance of power.
Pakistan’s Response: Chagai-I Tests
Within 17 days of India’s 1998 tests, Pakistan conducted its own nuclear tests in Chagai Hills, Balochistan, on May 28, 1998.
- Conducted five tests on May 28 and one more on May 30.
- Announced a policy of minimum credible deterrence, without committing to No-First-Use.
Implications:
- The region had entered a nuclear arms race.
- Both nations became overt nuclear states, recognized by the world despite being outside the NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty).
India’s Nuclear Tests: Strategic Impact on Pakistan
1. Changed Military Doctrines
India’s nuclear tests forced Pakistan to adopt a full-spectrum deterrence strategy. This includes:
- Tactical nuclear weapons.
- Short-range delivery systems like the Nasr missile.
- Focus on second-strike capability.
2. Shifted Global Diplomacy
- India gained a seat at strategic negotiation tables, like the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).
- Pakistan remained diplomatically isolated, though it maintained nuclear parity.
3. Psychological Deterrence
- India’s nuclear tests served as a strong message: any conventional conflict could escalate into nuclear warfare.
- This limited Pakistan’s strategic options, especially in conventional warfare.
Nuclear Tests and the Kargil War: A Nuclear Shadow
The Kargil War of 1999 was the first conflict between nuclear-armed nations. It showed:
- Conventional wars can still happen under the nuclear umbrella.
- India avoided deep strikes into Pakistan, fearing nuclear retaliation.
- Global powers, especially the United States, intervened diplomatically to de-escalate the situation.
This marked a new era of nuclear diplomacy in South Asia.
India’s Nuclear Doctrine Post-Tests
India formalized its nuclear policy with the following key principles:
- No-First-Use (NFU): Nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation.
- Credible Minimum Deterrence: India will maintain only enough weapons for deterrence.
- Civilian Control: Nuclear arsenal under political leadership, not military.
Pakistan, by contrast, refused NFU and adopted an ambiguous doctrine, keeping India guessing.
International Reactions to India’s Nuclear Tests
- United States and Western nations imposed economic sanctions but later engaged India through strategic dialogues.
- China opposed the tests but also respected India’s strategic capabilities.
- India leveraged its tests to negotiate better defense and trade agreements in the long run.
Legacy of India’s Nuclear Tests
For India:
- Achieved strategic parity with China and Pakistan.
- Strengthened national security posture.
- Became a recognized responsible nuclear power in global forums.
For Pakistan:
- Triggered a costly nuclear arms race.
- Increased reliance on external allies like China for defense parity.
- Locked into a perpetual security dilemma with India.
Conclusion
India’s nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998 were not random displays of power but carefully calculated responses to military threats and regional instability, especially after repeated conflicts with Pakistan.
These tests reshaped the security architecture of South Asia, creating a delicate nuclear balance that continues to influence diplomacy, military planning, and peace efforts. While the nuclearization of the region has prevented full-scale wars, it has also raised the stakes in any future conflict between India and Pakistan.