Did ancient Indians practice democracy?

When we think of democracy, we often imagine modern parliaments, elections, and written constitutions. However, the idea of ​​people’s participation in governance is much older than the modern democratic systems of the West. Ancient India, although primarily ruled by monarchies, also saw the emergence of democratic and quasi-democratic institutions, notably in the form of republics (known as ganpatis), councils, and village assemblies. Although these systems were not “democratic” in the modern sense, they reflected principles such as collective decision-making, the rule of law, debate, and representation. The story of democracy in ancient India is not one of absence, but of early experiments in participatory governance.

The clearest evidence of ancient Indian democracy comes from the ganpatis or oligarchic republics that existed between 600 BC and 400 AD, especially in northern India. These were not monarchies, but polities governed by a group of elders, nobles, or clan representatives. The most famous of these was the Licchavi republic of Vaishali, located in present-day Bihar. According to Buddhist texts, Vaishali was governed by an assembly of 7,707 representatives, each of whom was responsible for making decisions on administration, law, and justice.

In these republics, decisions were often made through discussion, voting, and consensus, and leadership was sometimes rotational or elected. Although not all members of society had a say—women, lower castes, and slaves were usually excluded—these systems reflected a structured form of participatory governance, long before similar models appeared in Europe.

Much of what we know about these ancient Indian republics comes from Buddhist and Jain texts, especially the Pali Canon. For example, the Mahaparinibbana Sutta gives a detailed account of how the Licchavis held regular meetings, passed resolutions and followed a constitution-like system of governance. The Buddha himself praised these republican practices, urging rulers to meet regularly, discuss matters collectively and act in harmony. Jain texts also mention republics such as the Mallaki and the Shakya, who were descendants of the Buddha himself. These communities had formed councils and emphasised collective decision-making, showing that non-monarchical rule was not rare in ancient India.

Another example of democratic traditions in ancient India comes from village assemblies (sabhas and samitis). Particularly in the South Indian Chola period (9th to 13th centuries AD), inscriptions reveal that village councils were elected bodies responsible for managing land, taxes, irrigation, temples and even justice. In Tamil Nadu, the famous 10th-century Uttaramerur inscription describes how members were selected through a lottery system, with strict rules about eligibility, conduct and tenure limits. These local bodies functioned like mini-democracies, deeply rooted in community life.

These assemblies show that grassroots governance and collective decision-making was a key feature of Indian society, especially in rural areas. They were accountable, systematic and participatory long before the advent of modern electoral democracy.

Going further back, the Rig Veda (around 1500 BCE), one of the oldest texts in the world, mentions two important assemblies: the Sabha and the Samiti. These were early institutions of governance, where matters of war, justice, religion and administration were discussed. When kings had power, they often consulted these bodies for advice and support. The Samiti was more general and involved public opinion, while the Sabha was more aristocratic, like a council of elders.

Although these assemblies gradually lost their power as the monarchy became more centralized, their existence shows that ancient Indian society valued collective discussion, consultative councils, and checks on power, which are key principles of democratic functioning.

Despite these democratic experiments, monarchy gradually became the dominant political system in ancient India. Over time, hereditary rule, caste hierarchy, and religious conservatism overtook earlier republican and participatory traditions. The decline of the republics and the rise of powerful empires such as the Mauryas and the Guptas centralized power. Still, local self-government continued at the village level for centuries, even surviving foreign invasions and periods of imperial rule.

So, did ancient Indians practice democracy? Yes – but in very different forms from what we see today. Ancient India had republican states, elected village councils, consultative assemblies and public debates, all of which point to a rich legacy of participatory governance.

Although limited by social inequality and hierarchical structures, these systems reflected a strong belief in shared power, consensus and public duty. Far from being politically passive, ancient Indian society experimented with ways to involve people – at least some groups – in the process of governance. Recognising this past helps us understand that democracy in India is not just a modern import, but also a revival of deeply rooted traditions.