How did caste system evolve in India?

The caste system is one of the world’s most deeply rooted and complex social hierarchies, with its origins and evolution stretching over more than 3,000 years. Though commonly associated with Hindu society, the caste system has influenced—and been influenced by—various religious, economic, and political forces throughout Indian history. What began as a functional division of labor gradually transformed into a rigid, hereditary system that shaped social dynamics, access to resources, and individual identity. Understanding how the caste system evolved requires looking at its early Vedic foundations, historical transformations, colonial reinforcement, and modern resistance.

The earliest references to caste-like divisions in Indian society appear in the Rigveda, composed around 1500 BCE. The famous Purusha Sukta hymn describes the cosmic being (Purusha) whose body gave rise to the four varnas or classes:

• Brahmins (priests and scholars) from the mouth
• Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers) from the arms
• Vaishyas (traders and agriculturists) from the thighs
• Shudras (laborers and service providers) from the feet

This division was symbolic and fluid in the early Vedic age. The varna system was based more on duties and qualities rather than birth. Social mobility was possible, and individuals could rise or fall based on merit and profession. There is also limited evidence from this period suggesting rigid segregation or exclusion.

Over time, especially during the Later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), the varna system became more rigid. As agriculture spread and urban centers grew, new occupations emerged. The four broad varnas were no longer sufficient to categorize all professions and communities. This led to the emergence of jatis, or birth-based occupational groups.

While varna was the theoretical framework, jati became the lived reality. Jatis were endogamous (marrying within the group), hereditary, and often defined by profession. Hundreds, eventually thousands, of jatis evolved across regions, each with its own customs, status, and restrictions. This birth-based stratification became more entrenched, and inter-caste mobility declined.

The rigidification of caste was also influenced by religious texts and interpretations. Dharmashastras, especially the Manusmriti (circa 200 BCE–200 CE), laid out strict rules about caste-based duties, purity, pollution, and social interactions. These texts formalized a hierarchy that placed Brahmins at the top and Shudras at the bottom, with “outcastes” or Dalits (formerly called “untouchables”) completely outside the varna system.

However, Indian philosophy also produced strong critiques of caste. Buddhism and Jainism, emerging around the 6th century BCE, rejected caste distinctions and emphasized moral conduct over birth. Later, the Bhakti movement in medieval India (7th to 17th centuries) further challenged caste hierarchies, promoting devotion (bhakti) as the path to liberation, accessible to all regardless of caste.

When Muslim dynasties established rule in India (beginning in the 12th century), the caste system did not disappear but adapted. Many artisans and lower-caste Hindus converted to Islam, attracted by its relatively egalitarian ethos. However, remnants of caste-like stratification appeared even among Indian Muslims, indicating the deep cultural embedding of caste.

Hindu society during Islamic rule continued its caste-based structure, although some upper-caste groups lost political power to the new ruling elites. Temples, which had been major centers of caste-based control, declined in political influence, and some social mobility became possible in urban centers.

Ironically, one of the most significant reinforcements of the caste system came during British colonial rule. British administrators, in trying to classify and govern Indian society, conducted censuses that forced Indians to define themselves rigidly by caste. Colonial ethnographers treated caste as a fixed, scientific category, misunderstanding its fluidity and complexity.

Moreover, the British legal and land revenue systems gave formal recognition and privileges to certain castes, particularly upper-caste landowners and Brahmins, reinforcing social hierarchies. Educational and administrative opportunities often excluded lower castes, deepening socio-economic inequalities.

By the 19th and 20th centuries, caste-based discrimination was increasingly challenged. Reformers like Jyotirao Phule, Swami Vivekananda, B.R. Ambedkar, and Mahatma Gandhi worked in different ways to uplift marginalized communities and promote social equality.

Ambedkar, a Dalit himself and chief architect of the Indian Constitution, led mass movements against caste oppression and campaigned for the annihilation of caste. He emphasized education, legal rights, and conversion (to Buddhism) as ways to break free from caste-based discrimination.

Post-independence, the Indian Constitution abolished untouchability and guaranteed equal rights to all citizens. Affirmative action policies, including reservations in education and employment, were introduced to address historical injustices. Still, caste remains a powerful social force in India, especially in politics, marriage, and rural life.

The caste system in India evolved from a functional division of labor to a rigid, birth-based hierarchy that dictated nearly every aspect of life. Over centuries, it was shaped by religious doctrines, economic structures, colonial policies, and social dynamics. While modern India has made significant strides in promoting caste equality through law and policy, caste identity and discrimination persist in subtle and overt forms.

Understanding the historical evolution of the caste system helps us see its complexity and also highlights the importance of ongoing efforts to build a more just and inclusive society. The story of caste in India is not just about division—it’s also about resistance, reform, and resilience.